The definition of children with PMLD

The definition of children with PMLD Children with profound multiple learning disabilities (PMLD) experience barriers to communication and interaction which prevent them having the full opportunity to an appropriate education. It is essential to remember that as they share the same general aims as other children in school'(Ref), that is, they need to progress to the best of their ability. In Saudi Arabia there are very few centers that provide a successful curriculum for children with PMLD (Rectory Paddock School, 1981)Be careful this looks as if Rectory Paddock school is expressing a view about education in Saudi Arabia and it didnt.). Moreover, all/some/many teachers are inexperienced and lack the ability to develop the full potential of children with PMLD. This confirms that I need to establish a greater knowledge of services in the UK and identify the positive aspects. In the past, PMLD in the UK received only rehabilitation programs that included providing basic necessities such as medical treatment and food. Rece ntly, this practice has changed to providing a successful curriculum that focuses on the needs and abilities of the individuals (Lacey Ouvry, 1998). This essay will therefore provide suggestions on how to achieve a successful curriculum for children with PMLD, helping to understand the wider concepts involved and how these children can eventually reach sufficient independence by identifying their individual needs. This essay will present the definition of children with PMLD, followed by the childrens primary needs including their physical, sensory and communication needs. It will then go on to look at the way of organize the classroom and then it is going to explain some of the teaching approach. The definition of children with PMLD Complicated terminology is used to refer to children who have the greatest difficulties with learning e.g. PMLD, severe learning disabilities (SLD), profound learning disabilities (PLD) and severe disabilities. To understand how to educate the children, it is necessary to address more than one of the associated issues which are related with ill defined terms, variables and unstable definitions. The official terms used for dealing with PMLD may be different in various countries. In America the term severe is used for individuals with an IQ of 20/25 to 35/40 and moderate for those with IQ 35/40 to 50/55. In contrast, United Kingdom refers to children with IQ below 50 as having SLD (Porter, 2009). In Saudi Arabia multiple disabilities is a common term used to refer to presence of more than one disability in a child which leads to severe educational problems which includes multiple intellectual disorder, multi-sensory disabilities, multiplicity of disability associated with severe behavioral disorders and severe disabilities (General Directorate of Special education , 2001) ). The term learning disabilities used in the UK should not be confused with terms used in other countries where they have the same meaning as mental retardation or intellectual disabilities. UK calls problems such as dyslexia specific learning difficulties or specific learning disabilities (Rennie, 2007). Another problem which arises is that many believe that SLD and PMLD are synonymous terms. There is a lack of differentiation between profound learning disabilities and multiple disabilities as the two terms have similar needs and come under the same heading of Severe Learning Disabilities (Evans and Ware 1987). Some writers, such as (Aird, 2001) continue dealing with these two terms as synonymous. On the other hand, Swift(2005) defines the two terms differently. He says that SLD refers to children who have emotional needs, some students may use signs and symbols to support their communication and/or sensory impairments in addition general cognitive difficulties and mobility difficulty. On the other hand, PMLD regards to children who present physical disabilities, sensory impairment or severe medical condition. Although there are similarities in the definitions, it is preferred to use PMLD as it is widely accepted in Britain (Ware, 2009). Furthermore, some children with profound learn ing disabilities are described as PMLD whereas there are few people with profound learning disabilities who have no other severe impairments (Ware Healey,1994). To become more aware of this group of children, it is necessary to identify their characteristics. Children with PMLD have profound intellectual impairment and other multiple disabilities including sensory, physical or autism (Lacy Ouvry 1998. To illustrate that, I will use the example of Rett Autism Syndrome displaying an inability to performer motor functional actions including eye gaze and speech and slowed brain function (Pierangelo Giuliani, 2008). However, they are described as not a homogenous group (SCAA, 1996). In my professional practice, I have dealt with children who had severe physical or visual disabilities but did not necessarily have profound learning disabilities and some who had profound learning disabilities with good motor ability, learning, motor and sensory skills and thus needs differed from child to child. Another approach to a definition suggests that children with PMLD are in the first four stages of Piagets Sensory motor development (What is this_ (Clark, 1991). However, from my experience the pre-process stage, which says that the child in this stage can combining attributes samples of common objects and classifying them. Children with PMLD may have the ability to recognize visual word (MAKTON) system and classify the thing that he/she wants to do as an activity. In relation to PMLD symptoms children may have behavior disorders which are challenging for teachers (SCAA, 1996). The association between behavior and physical disability may or may not be a casual one. For example, disability may lead to depression which further increases the level of disability (Marten, 1980). From my experience, behavior is not only influenced by genetic and neurological factors but is due to the negative interaction and relationships between the child and the society. Another approach to categories concentrates on the IQ in classified the person with PMLD whose has IQ level below 20. Recently the World Health Organization adapted a more social model of disability which classify on the individual strength and the social barriers that may compound a disability. Internationally three criteria are regarded as requiring to be met before learning disabilities can be identified: intellectual impairment, social dysfunction and early onset (The World Health Organization WHO, 2001(. On the other hand people with PMLD function equal to or less than one fifth of their chronological age (Sebba, 1988). This is a rather old referenceSome prefer to down play IQ on terms of the students curricular needs; they call someone with severe learning difficulties if he/she attends an SLD or school. It can also consider what happens to children when they leave school, or we may distinguish pupils with moderate and severe learning difficulties by reflecting on the age at wh ich their problems were first identified (Farrell, 1997). (Quite a lot of this section uses some dated material is this because you can see similarities between those debates and the ones now happening in your country.) Criteria for placing pupils into categories have changed over the time. Children who may have had PMLD in the past may be now regarded as having multiple disabilities but not PLD (Ouvry Saunders, 2001). This last consideration is of enormous importance when considering learning with PMLD: children with PMLD are now classified to be more intellectually able. The current percentage of children with PMLD has increased as a result of high level of health care provided (Lacey Ouvry, 1998) where the number of adults with PMLD will raise from 78 in 2009 to 105 in 2026, as in average 3 in 2009 to 5 in 2026 (centre for Disabilities Research CeDR, 2009). The definition has changed over time linked with the changing of the education system from segregation to inclusion. I will illustrate this by references to curriculum access. Around 1971, children with the most profound disabilities in the UK were excluded from education, cared for in wards as they were considered unable to follow the standard curriculum (Clark, 1991; Lacy Ouvry, 1998). However, after this point, some children who attended schools for pupils with LD also had severe physical disabilities require specialized facilities but which would possible to provide in Educational Sub Normal ESN(S) classes (Rectory Paddock School, 1981)., Historically some writers assume that Special Care Units (SCUs) remain the only setting specifically able to provided for children with PLD and additional disabilities in schools catering for severe learning disabilities (Evans Ware, 1987) In contrast, terms special care is not acceptable as the provision provide for PMLD are varied (Sebba, 19 88). In the UK, the curriculum needs have given more attention to other educational aspects (Cline Frederickson, 2009). Children with PMLD may work with P1-P4 in the national curriculum where P scales provide small, achievable steps to monitor progress (Swift, 2005). Some children may even work at P levels 1-3 for the majority or all of their school life (Ware, 2009). It is hard to reach a clear definition which would be used to describe a group of children who share common characteristics with other categories. However, in my view, supported by this evidence, a child with PMLD has multi-disabilities: learning disability and other disabilities. The most important aspect in planning education is to focus on the childrens requirements and needs no matter how this group of learners is defined.. Children with PMLD primary needs which affect their ability to learn Children with multiple disabilities face many problems which challenge adults who work with them. A careful analysis to their needs is required to understand exactly what is preventing progress (Stone, 1995). There is a wide spectrum of special educational needs that are frequently inter-related. They may fall into at least one of four areas: communication and interaction, cognition and learning, behavior, emotional and social development and sensory and/or physical (The Code of Practice, 2001). Physical needs: There is some physical impairment that can be diagnosed from birth: cerebral palsy, spin bifida, congenital abnormalities of the skeleton and other rare neuromuscular diseases (Hogg Sebba, 1986a). PMLD has a lack of independent, muscle spasm, abnormal reflex activity, inability to control bladder or bowels and congenital abnormalities of skeleton which make people feel uncomfortable and cause other problems (Clark, 1991; Hogg Sebba 1986). Physical impairment affects other parts of the childs life: being unable to move well may be at risk of developing distortions of body shape over a period of time (Rennie, 2007; Fulford Brown, 1976). The teacher needs to understand these problems and focus on basic physical therapy in a curriculum plan (Clark, 1991), with a holistic approach (Rennie, 2007) and lifelong commitment which influences the majority of the individuals time at school and home rather than an ineffective ritual (Lacy Ouvry, 1998). Yet this as I believe does not necessarily mean therapy used in traditional ways. Many creative methods a physiotherapist can use in cooperation with the teacher in the classroom in childrens mobility curriculum and teaching methods. Traditional ways should not be taught in the same order (Stone, 1995)What do you mean?. I would suggest using things from everyday environment would be more suitable for physical therapy, merging skills training for recognizing colour and rolling to tr ain muscles by placing the child on a mat between a green and a red ball and asking them to move in the direction of either ball. This way the child learns colour recognition, exercises and s the game. Children learn more quickly if they enjoy themselves. As a child with PMLD spends most of his time at home, therapy can be successful when the parents have major roles in planning and implementing (Lacy Ouvry, 1998). The best way is to raise parents awareness and to make fully participate in the therapy which lead to greater improvement in the child. Sensory needs Children with PMLD often experience sensory problems. There are a number of different needs arising from sensory impairment, one arising directly from the impairment such as visual or auditory impairment (Lacey Ouvey, 1998) which have adverse effects on linguistic development, behaviour, and emotional adjustment, socially isolated and the general quality of a persons life (Clark, 1991; Ellis, 1992). Other problems are often environmental. Parents and teachers can lose interest in interacting meaningfully with their child who does not provide cues or rewards in the form of a smile. From my experience, children with PMLD are often ignored by their peers and teachers who interact with children who communicate more. Hearing impairment and learning disabilities are not clearly separated (Kropka Williams, 1986) and cannot be underestimated as the hearing impairment is not as obvious to an observer as some other impairments (Sebba,1988). In this matter it is primary aim of managing sensory impairments is to try to allow children to have access to the same quality of life and experiences by using whatever hearing and sight they have to the best of their ability or by helping them to make use of their other senses such as touch and smell (Sebba, 1988). Communication needs When I was in the early phases of my training, I remember there was a teacher who sang to a child with PMLD. I wondered why this teacher was choosing to do so when the child could not hear. The child smiled and laughed at the teacher and reacted positively in her presence. It became clear to me that the child needed to have interaction and could communicate in a specific way as he could interpret some sensory information. If communication fails, then other social activities go away as well. Children with profound learning disabilities show massive delays in communication, which makes it hard to communicate, convey ideas and experiences with other people. (Hogg Sebba, 1986) Despite that in fact every child is a unique case, speech is not the only means of communication (Hogg Sebba 1986). Some children who are described as not having the ability to traditionally communicate are able to show preferences when they are given a choice (Glenn? OBrien 1994). This is confirmed by my experience which shows that these children have a lot of stored energy which just needs continuous attention and time to be displayed or disabilities are likely to deteriorate. The code of practice mentions that most children with special educational needs have strengths and difficulties in one, some, or all of the areas of communication. Children will need to continue developing their linguistic competences (Code of Practice, 2 001). With the knowledge that there is no cure(This takes us right into the medical model is that your intention> for these needs, there are many ways to help these children get the best possible outcome for growth and development, to perform any tasks that are necessary in their daily lives to remaining integration in society. Thus we need to build an appropriate program for children with PMLD on an individual basis to meet individual needs, where in the last ten years there has been a big change in the ways of dealing with children with PMLD and schools are now receiving children who have several needs (Lacy Ouvry, 1998). Teaching and learning is complex. Within this discussion, little attention will be given to curriculum content for two reasons. First, the lack of compatibility between the curriculum in Saudi Arabia and England. Second, because for this group of learners focus on effectiveteaching and learning including accede to several different teaching methods is of prome concern. Even if there are good teaching practices put in place, they will not work if the environment is not suitable for learning (Sebba, 1988). Therefore it will focus on how to organize the learning environment where children should be more familiar with the classroom, and anticipate the activities (Ouvry Saunders, 2001). You have introduced t/l first and then the envornment. Is it logical to write the sections in the same order or to re-order these comments? How to organize the learning environment Children will need to overcome classroom obstacles before they are able to start to learn, this can be handled by the establishment of an appropriate learning environment .There are numerous necessary measures to build and maintain an appropriate environment for children with PMLD it is vital that this environment is well organized to suit their needs. Regardless of whether children with PMLD are educated in a specialist environment or in mainstream school, (Ware, 1994) suggests three core principles in the organization of a classroom: the organization of time, people and material in an environment which can all overlap. The physical environment organization The physical environment plays a role in raising childrens motivation to work. Teachers should define each area of classroom and ensure that the environment is not distracting to help the child to learn easily (Byers, 1998) for example, the work area should not include visual distraction which can confuse and have a negative effect on the learning process (Porter, 2002). In addition the size of the room must be considered, if the room is too large or open this can distraction the child (Nind et al, 2001). From my experience I remember that also the small room encourages unsuitable behaviour, teachers was putting the pupils standers behind the door because the room was very smallwhich can make movement in and out of the room difficult; this subsequently upsets the children and made him react in an unsuitable manner. Another matter is organizing the classroom based on the childs needs. For example, it is often a good idea to place children with the most profound physical needs in easily accessible points in the classroom so they can move more freely (Algozzine Ysseldyke, 2006). For children with visual impairments, strip lighting is unsuitable as it does not provide good distinction between different objects, and so spot lighting, colored bulbs or dark areas should be used to show different areas as well as different textures. Furthermore, I have found that it is beneficial for children with PMLD to have a designated seat in the classroom as this promotes confidence and a sense of familiarity (Nind et, al 2001). But which position are the best for seating. A study found that children who functioned at a lower level worked well in a prone position (Park et al, 2005). Other study suggests that position is not simply a matter of optimizing attention, but the impact on other functions, such as hand use and spinal extension (McEwen, 2002). The position of the teacher and the other staff is significant. They should be able to assess the child and their emotions, so that they can help the child sufficiently. If they are behind the child or to the side, they may not be able to see the Children may need help with their medication if they have to take it through the school day (Algozzine Ysseldyke, 2006). The social environment organization Knowledge of the child is very important in the social environment organization, knowing what they like, dislike, how they interact and communicate; education should happen co-actively (Cartwright Wind-cowie, 2005). Teacher also should not become dominant in the relationship; rather, they should help the child learn in their specific way. There are three main models for the teacher/pupil relationship: the teacher dominating, the pupil dominating or a two way dialogue. The third is the hardest, but if successful, the best (Lacy Ouvry, 1998). The final model requires very strict planning and organization in order that it works well. Rewards are also positive in order to build a good social environment. The teacher should understand that some children with PMLD will find standard encouragement techniques, such as cheering, very discouraging and distracting. Therefore, the teacher should observe signals from the child to discern what they like and do not like (Sebba, 1988). Another matter which is very important in the social aspect is that teachers should understand how the child would react to failure, in this way they can prepare for it. (Corker, 1992) suggests that children should be encouraged to see failure not as a result of inability but because of lack of effort or dedication. In this way, they are empowered to change it and succeed in the future. The time organization The most difficult balance to maintain is how to organize time inside the classroom with regards to the curriculum and the ways of teaching. There should be an appropriate division of time between national curriculum, non-national curriculum based activities and therapy (Ware, 1994). I remember from my experience that children have their own schedule divided between the child needs. Expand Another matter, which is widely discussed, is the way of teaching children. Which way of teaching a child with PMLD is more beneficial? Children with PMLD would benefit from being taught in a group. If the children with PMLD are placed together they may become more perceptive and have a greater interest in what they are doing (Hogg Sebba, 1986). Although group work can be effective, in reality can be deceptive. A child who appears to be working in a group may in fact actually be working alone (Bennet Cass, 1988). Some specialists infer that in teaching children with PMLD, there should be group work involved and also individual work this is seen as the most beneficial practice (Ware, 1994). From my experiences whilst the teacher worked with the class as a whole, the teaching assistant would remove a child from the group in order to provide individual focus to that child. This enables effective and beneficial learning for the children as it advantageous for the childs learning to hav e individual attention. The grouping learning a raises the question of how much time should the teacher spend with an individual child compared to how much time spent with the entire class. I think group work is imperative and therefore time should be devoted to this, particularly because children should be encouraged to develop awareness of their peers, this is realized through group work (Cartwright Wind-Cowie, 2005). However, I realize from my experience the specific method influences the way of teaching; whether individually or in a group. (Ware, 1994) mention some examples for effective grouping are suggested, Scripted or Jigsawing which are used with heterogeneous group without losing the benefits of individual work. In addition, there are also issues about whether the same activities should take place at the same time each day or not. There should be a clear routine established and a consistent timetable, especially at the beginning of the day with registration; so that the child knows what is happening and so therefore is not anxious (Corker, 1992 ; Ware, 1994). However, this can sometimes be problematic because it must be accepted that some activities will take longer for children with PMLD to carry out, in these cases certain allowances must be made. (Orelove et al, 2001). There are other issues related to the timetable of the childrens learning, there is no evidence that children will learn best in the morning. There is evidence that children with PMLD may be best taught if they have therapy in the morning so that they are calm for the other activities. Moreover, there is the issue of medicinal side effects and how this can cause problems with learning (Ware, 1994). All this must be taken into account when time planning to keep the attention focused and to help the child to learn. Teaching approaches The special education literature now focuses more on the teaching methods than the curriculum content. I will mention some of the teaching methods which are used. Task analysis in which a task is broken down into manageable pieces with clear objectives, making it easier for the child to learn (Sebba, 1988). Errorless learning, an exercise in which examples are given to the children yet only require only one possible solution, thus increasing the opportunity of reward for the child. Do you agree with errorless learningRecording, where all the practices are planned and recalled so they are then assessed (Hogg Sebba, 1986). Next is the use of ICT to help with communication and with social interaction. Also to aid choice making as it will help with life skills and requires a lot of concentration (Ware, 2009). Using pictures to communicate choice and show correlation between different pictures and objects has often been effective with the use of commands (Porter Ashdown, 2002). There ar e also three main types of holistic approach: conductive education, patterning and coactive intervention (Hogg Sebba, 1986). Acoustic bells can be used to create an intense sound environment to encourage learning and concentration (Mednick, 2007). It is now necessary to evaluate two teaching approaches, intensive interaction and multisensory approach. Because these two methods focus on the children with PMLD which I mention them previously. I will be used as illustrative examples to examine the techniques that can be employed to optimize the learning experience for the child with PMLD. Intensive interaction Teaching children with PMLD is often focused on communication (Ware, 2009) which is fundamental and makes child learn about themselves and others (Hewett Nind, 1998). However, sometimes children with PMLD are taught a way of communication which they cannot understand or which may be limited and therefore unsatisfactory. In my experience, teaching that solely focuses on the core curriculum was only effective for a number of children, leaving others unresponsive to the teacher. During the activity the teacher would help the child physically whilst using different way of communicating, for instance by photo cards, however this may not be beneficial every time. From my reading I have established that these children were entitled to communicate in their own way; they should not have to be taught a standardized way of communication, at least in the initial stages. By using our body language and gaining feedback by watching others reactions (Caldwell, 2008) this makes communication easier as the child will understand that the teacher can understand their emotions. The standard ways of Intensive interaction refers to when the adult working one to one to with the child to mimics any communication behaviour of the learner of by using the childs own method (Watson, 1994) to makes teaching and learning easier (Hewett Nind, 1998), and to develop sociability, communication, cognitive abilities, emotional well-being, constructive interaction with immediate environment and self awareness (Nind Hewett ,1994). I think this is practical and reality, if we see how the mother contact and communicate with her child, we dont compare between children with PMLD with the infant, What I want to highlight, is how the baby feel happy with his/her mother imitations and his reaction and how he continue in communication. The Strategies: There are two studies which say that intensive interaction is a very good way of developing communication and social skills. It must be employed systematically and used efficiently in order for it to be effective (Watson Fisher, 1997; Kellett, 2003). The focus must be on the quality of the interaction sociability and communication and not the outcome (Hewett Nind, 1998). Records must be kept of all interaction so that any changes, even if minute, can be remembered. It is often difficult to do this without records as the changes can be very small (Irvine, 1998). There must be a limiting of numbers of staff and volunteers so that there is routine and the people can all be fully trained to their abilities (Ware, 1996). Intensity, sensitivity and reflection are key in implementing this method. The method encourages awareness of those around the learner, and ignores ideas about tasks and correct or incorrect ideas, and so puts the precedence on the learning process. (Hewett Nind, 1998). Intensive interaction should be used within a group environment to make it more standard and to ensure that abuse allegations do not occur (Nind Hewett, 1994). The process of intensive interaction is included in this. An advantage to adopting this approach is its simplicity; it does not require materials and therefore can be used in the home. What makes this approach more significant is that it can be used easily at home (Irvine, 1998). There are some problems encountered in this methods, the abilities to make a response is sometimes weak. The adult may be tired or the child may anxious (Kellett Nind, 2008) the child may want to continue to interact when no one is available (Irvine, 1998) so it is necessary for the adults to learn to tolerate a delay (Maggs Samuel 1998). Another problematic issue is that Intensive interaction works for some people but not all. So although there are some overriding principles for using intensive interaction, the approach must be changeable and flexible so that the child can achieve the most possible. (Kellett Nind, 2008). However, for those it does work for, it is still very difficult to prove that intensive interaction is the only cause for improvement (Irvine, 1998). The multisensory approach Some children, who have sensory ability such as sight, may not understand how to use it or how to interpret what they see. Thus teachers should help children to use all the senses to enable good learning. One of the ways of the using multisensory approach is the sensory room. This can be described as a reactive environment (Mednick, 2007). There are two ways to define the sensory room or snoezelen () : the actual space and the impact on the child. The space can be characterized by the physical attributes, size and complexity, size of the room is very important so the child does not feel overwhelmed by the space or out of control. The same is for ideas about complexity; there should not be a sensory overload. There is no set list of things which are including in a sensory space, which can include simple materials or complex interactive electronic equipment (Stephenson, 2002). Other physical aspect are the different type of sensory room, there are six primary kinds of rooms: white room, dark room, sound room, interactive room, water room, soft play rooms finally there are outdoor spaces in the gardens each room have aims and goals (Pagliano, 1999). Although the only limitations on these spaces is imagination, the childs likes and dislikes are the primary influence as some might not like a white room but may love a water experience. If the child can exert control over their environment, they will develop control and autonomy and greater self confidence (Stephenson, 2002). The other aspect of the definition is the impact on the childs ability, which includes good communication, movement, cognitive ability, emotions, behavioral changes, life skills and good expressive arts (Longhorn, 1988). This makes it one of the most effective methods to teach a child with PMLD because it makes learning easier (Fowler, 2008) and fun for

Free Automated Essay Writer :: Automated Essay Writer

The new and improved Automated Essay Writer automatically writes your assignment, essays, articles, research papers for you. All you need to do is enter your assignment requirements and the Automated Essay Writer will present you with a unique and original essay within just few seconds. The only problem is that it has not yet been developed. Until the day we have finally perfected the Automated Essay Writer, one must be able to express themselves in writing if they wish to participate in the modern world. One of the first steps in mastering the ability of self-expression is to learn how to write a simple essay. What is an essay? Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary (2nd ed.) defines an essay as â€Å"a short literary composition dealing with a single subject, usually from a personal point of view and without attempting completion.† Kathleen McWhorter, author of The Writer’s Express, defines an essay as â€Å"a group of paragraphs about one subject.† Aldous Huxley called the essay â€Å"a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything.† As you might have guessed from these passages, the essay may take many forms. Most of the essays you will write during your college career, however, will be what are known as persuasive (or argumentative) essays. A persuasive essay takes a position on a topic and attempts to prove that position. Structure of a persuasive essay A persuasive essay usually consists of the following three parts: 1. The introduction starts with a fairly general opening statement which introduces readers to your topic (or subject) and gradually narrows to a specific thesis. The thesis, or thesis statement, tells the reader what you are going to say about your topic. Thesis statements often come at the end of the introductory paragraph. This movement from the general to the specific is referred to as a funnel paragraph. 2. The body is made up of the paragraphs which support your thesis. These paragraphs contain the evidence, arguments, and examples that support your thesis. 3. The conclusion starts with a summary of the specific points of your essay, followed by a restatement of your thesis (usually in a slightly reworded form), and ends with a rather general statement about the implications of your thesis. This movement from the specific to the general is just the opposite of that in the introduction, and is known as an inverted funnel. Writing the essay 1. Choosing a topic

Deviant Behavior in the Light of Conflict Theory

Conflict theory is based on the idea that the main causes of crime and deviance are the economic and social differences among members of a society, prompting the have-nots to act out, if not to rob the haves. According to this theory, criminal law and the entire criminal justice system tend to be favorable toward the wealthy and the powerful elites, while the governmental policies are aimed at controlling only the needy and poor members of society.Moreover, the theory assumes that the entire criminal justice structure is aimed at compelling all members of society to accept the standards of good behavior and morality that are created by the rich and the powerful. There is a focus on separation between the haves and the have-nots, so as to protect the haves from physical attacks by the have-nots, and also to protect them from being robbed. In the process, however, the rights of the poor and needy people could be ignored. The middle class, on the other hand, enjoys the legal rights of t he elites by siding with them.These people believe that they might be able to rise in rank by backing up the status quo (â€Å"Conflict,† 2005). The simplistic conflict theory has been explained further thus: †¦[S]treet crimes, even minor monetary ones are routinely punished quite severely, while large scale financial and business crimes are treated much more leniently. Theft of a television might receive a longer sentence than stealing millions through illegal business practices. William Chambliss, in a classic essay â€Å"The Saints and the Roughnecks,† compared the outcomes for two groups of adolescent misbehavers. The first, a lower class group ofboys, was hounded by the local police and labeled by teachers as delinquents and future criminals, while the upper-middle class boys were equally deviant, but their actions were Deviant Behavior in the Light of Conflict Theory 2 written off as youthful indiscretions and learning experiences (â€Å"Conflict†). A lthough there is truth to the conflict theory, it is only partial. Of a certainty, there are countless people counted among the rich and the powerful who have engaged in deviant behaviors. What is more, they have not found the law to be lax toward them. As an example, both of President George W.Bush’s daughters have been in trouble with the law (Montgomery, 2001). The daughter of the President’s brother, Florida Governor Jeb Bush, has also been arrested for deviant behavior (â€Å"Jeb,† 2002). The conflict theory does not apply in their cases. Nor does it apply in the case of Enron and Worldcom – rich businesses that should have been untouched by the laws of the land if the conflict theory were entirely true. Although there may be instances where the conflict theory correctly explains deviant behavior, it is obvious that this theory cannot be applied to all places in the world at all times.There are many nations in the world where corruption is the law of the land, and unfairness is the norm. In the developing regions of the world, in particular, the have-nots may rob the haves or simply act out because they are disturbed by the unfairness that is mete out to them. However, it is not correct to understand deviant behavior only in the light of the conflict theory. If we are to believe that it is conflict theory alone that explains deviant behavior in human beings, we would not have examples of the Bush daughters and Enron to consider. There are many theories to explain deviant behavior.The cultural transmission or the differential associations theory, for example, may compete with the conflict theory in explaining deviance. According to the cultural transmission theory, all kinds of behaviors, including deviant behavior, are learned. Furthermore, the young and therefore more impressionable Deviant Behavior in the Light of Conflict Theory 3 learners of deviance may have developed close relationships with their deviant teachers. With i ncreasing contacts with deviant teachers, the young learners of deviance engage in increasingly deviant behaviors (â€Å"Sociological Theories†).The cultural transmission theory does not rule out the possibility that the children of the rich and the powerful may engage in deviant behaviors because they may have had deviant teachers. The conflict theory rules out this possibility entirely with its assumption that the societal norms are established by the rich and the powerful, so therefore they cannot possibly go against their own rules. As explained previously, this assumption of the conflict theory is not true, seeing that the rich and the powerful are also known to go against the societal norms, which they should have established for themselves and by themselves.The conflict theory is also not true one hundred percent in places where laws are created on the basis of unfairness and corruption. Even in such places, it is known that there are always people that try to work har d and honestly, despite the unfairness that is dealt out to them. In short, all people in ‘deviant’ places may not engage in deviant behaviors, even if the rich and the powerful have corrupted the government with bribes, etc. Yet another theory that conflicts with the conflict theory is the social control theory that explains why people may not engage in deviant behaviors.According to this theory, individuals may follow the societal norms because of their connecting social bonds (â€Å"Sociological Theories†). In other words, they may refuse to engage in deviant behaviors for the following reasons: (1) attachment — a measure of the connectedness between individuals; Deviant Behavior in the Light of Conflict Theory 4 (2) commitment — a measure of the stake a person has in the community; (3) involvement — a measure of the time/energy a person is spending on activities that are helpful to the community;(4) belief — a measure of the person 's support for the morals and beliefs of the community (â€Å"Sociological Theories†). If all poor and needy folks in an unfair society were to follow the societal norms because of their social contacts, the conflict theory would once again be rendered meaningless. It may be that some underprivileged folks with weak social bonds would engage in deviant behaviors in a corrupt society. In that case, however, the conflict theory would only apply to that small group of people. In actuality, such a group may be existent.Theoretically, however, it is possible for that group never to exist. Thus, the conflict theory may actually apply only in the cases of disgruntled, underprivileged folks who truly believe in righting the wrongs with wrongs. It would not apply in a corrupt society where underprivileged folks would like to work hard and honestly. And, neither would it apply in societies where the rich and the powerful are not exempt from the law. Therefore, the conflict theory is a naive theory, which, like most theories, does not explain reality in its entirety. References Conflict. (2005, Nov. 22). Florida State University. Retrieved Sep. 20, 2007, from http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/conflict.htm. Jeb Bush’s Daughter Charged with Prescription Fraud. (2002, Jan. 29). CNN. Retrieved Sep. 20, 2007, from http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/01/29/jeb.bush.daughter.drugs/. Montgomery, A. (2001, Jun. 4). Jenna Bush may face jail on booze charge. Chicago Sun-Times. Sociological Theories to Explain Deviance. Retrieved Sep. 20, 2007, from http://www.valdosta.edu/~klowney/devtheories.htm.

Free Essays on The Legislative Commission Of 1767

The document was written by Sergei Solov’ev to describe the events taking place at the Legislative Commission held by Catherine during 1767. The purpose of the commission was to clarify the laws of the Russian state since laws had been put into effect previously, without the knowledge of many Russian citizens. In order to guide the Legislative Commission Catherine wrote a set of â€Å"Instructions† in July of 1767.[1] The Commission Catherine set up consisted of 580 deputies, including members of the nobility, townspeople, free peasants, and other social groups.[2] Catherine’s original intent was to take a step towards liberalism in forming the commission. Although Catherine’s â€Å"Instructions† was a very liberal document, in fact it was not liberal at all. In Catherine’s instructions she specifies that the â€Å"ruler of Russia is absolute†, then proceeding to say that any other power would not be able to operate with such effectiveness. By Catherine claiming absolute power in her Instructions, she was attempting to convey her political legitimacy to the Russian people. By telling them that there is no other form of government that would be able to do a better job than â€Å"the ruler of Russia† she is letting them know that she is their best option and giving them no hope of legislative reform. Catherine originally called the commission in order to gain the support of the Russian people. She offered to let each class share their different ideas with her, and promised she would take them into consideration when forming new legislation in the future. The commission brought many concerns of the Russian citizens to the table. Between July of 1767 and October of 1768 the commission met formally to debate their concerns, until Catherine postponed the commission in order to go to war with Turkey.[3] Many subcommittees continued their work into the 1770’s when they finally gave up due to lack of new legislation. In the end th... Free Essays on The Legislative Commission Of 1767 Free Essays on The Legislative Commission Of 1767 The document was written by Sergei Solov’ev to describe the events taking place at the Legislative Commission held by Catherine during 1767. The purpose of the commission was to clarify the laws of the Russian state since laws had been put into effect previously, without the knowledge of many Russian citizens. In order to guide the Legislative Commission Catherine wrote a set of â€Å"Instructions† in July of 1767.[1] The Commission Catherine set up consisted of 580 deputies, including members of the nobility, townspeople, free peasants, and other social groups.[2] Catherine’s original intent was to take a step towards liberalism in forming the commission. Although Catherine’s â€Å"Instructions† was a very liberal document, in fact it was not liberal at all. In Catherine’s instructions she specifies that the â€Å"ruler of Russia is absolute†, then proceeding to say that any other power would not be able to operate with such effectiveness. By Catherine claiming absolute power in her Instructions, she was attempting to convey her political legitimacy to the Russian people. By telling them that there is no other form of government that would be able to do a better job than â€Å"the ruler of Russia† she is letting them know that she is their best option and giving them no hope of legislative reform. Catherine originally called the commission in order to gain the support of the Russian people. She offered to let each class share their different ideas with her, and promised she would take them into consideration when forming new legislation in the future. The commission brought many concerns of the Russian citizens to the table. Between July of 1767 and October of 1768 the commission met formally to debate their concerns, until Catherine postponed the commission in order to go to war with Turkey.[3] Many subcommittees continued their work into the 1770’s when they finally gave up due to lack of new legislation. In the end th...

italian tourism essays

italian tourism essays YOU would not know it from the English-language signs promising to serve passengers ``quckly'', but Naples' Capodichino airport is British-owned. In August, 70% of it was bought by BAA, a company that also runs, among other things, London's main airport, Heathrow. For the Italian south this is a symbol of hope. Finding an international firm of this calibre willing to invest there has greatly boosted its confidence. BAA, for its part, was attracted by the south's tourist potential, but spent three years thinking hard about the $44m deal. What clinched it in the end was the enthusiasm of Antonio Bassolino, the mayor of Naples since 1993. He won round BAA bosses with his clear commitment to privatisation, and fought off opposition at home to foreign ownership, branded as ``colonisation by A former communist fundamentalist, Mr Bassolino is an unlikely champion of privatisation. But the BAA deal is no one-off. Mr Bassolino boasts about selling the municipal dairy-``What was a city council doing selling milk?''-and about pioneering, with Merrill Lynch, Italy's first international municipal bond issue, which sold well in America. The cash was used to renovate the city's public transport system. He is promoting public-private partnerships; and he has just persuaded the Chinese commercial fleet to use Naples as its main container port for serving Europe. The city's inefficient bureaucracy has been shaken up, with the mayor leading by example. His distinctly un-Neapolitan punctuality and long working hours have earned him the nickname ``the German''. Using money for hosting the G7 summit in 1994 as a catalyst, the city has cleaned and restored many of its vast number of tourist attractions. It has also extended its opening hours and cleared the main piazzas of parked cars (though not, alas, of moving mopeds). Mr Bassolino talks with passion of re-born civic pride, of the need for Naples to solve its own problem...

Evolution of poultry processing in America Essay

Evolution of poultry processing in America - Essay Example At the end of 19th century poultry in USA were raised primarily for their eggs. In the early 1920s farmers, mainly women, began to sell eggs and meat on a market. By 1925 many farmer had already sold out poultry by rail. So, for 30 years home production of poultry had been turned into industry. In the 1930s, in some agricultural regions feed salesman sold to the farmers baby chicks in order they feed them on credit. When the chicks were grown, they buy chickens back at a price that would cover his costs and guarantee farmers a profit (Stull, Broadway, 1995). In some years these businessmen were able to open their own poultry processing plant and hatchery. So, during this period the poultry production was divided into several different sectors which include local growers, hatcheries, feed mills and processing plants all operating independently of one another. "The farmer switched from plant to plant based on the timing of each plant's needs. The biggest problem with this type of arrangement was a lack of protocol" (Stull, Broadway, 1995). During this time, there was no standard plan in order to give detailed instructions for farmers and processing plants to raise birds or hatcheries to process chicks or mills to formulate ingredients for feed (Moreng, Avens, 1985). At this period manual ... In addition the poultry processing work was dangerous, repetitive, and unhealthy. At the end of 1930s, when the Second World War began (1939), there was a significant growth in the poultry industry, and poultry consumption. The main buyer was the War Food Administration which reserved the processed chicken from many US states. This was an advantage for poultry plans as they can estimate the quantity of products having a guaranteed buyer. During the war period there was a shift from "New York dressed" (with head, feet, and entrails intact) to fully processed chickens (without head, feet, and entrails), and later to frozen birds, which became the industry standard (Moreng, Avens, 1985). In the middle of the XX century poultry industry grew remarkably. According to statistical data the number of farms involved in poultry production rose from 230 to 3,499 between 1939 and 1950. Many poultry processing plans integrate innovations and completed the vertical integration of their plants. These changes were caused by scientific discoveries and improving technology, which resulted in high productivity of plants. On the other hand, because of advances in technology and the need for constant refinancing to modernize chicken houses, the number of frames went bankrupt. For instance, "In Hall County only one-sixth of the number of contract growers in 1950 produced six times as many chickens in 1997" (Ensminger, 1992). The cooperative was developed to integrate the functional areas under one plant attempting to reduce costs with economies of scale and create standards that control quality from the hatching egg through the processing plant. To further cement the functional areas, the company was consolidated under our current management

Impact of Fatigue Associated with Long Hours as it Relates to Patient Article

Impact of Fatigue Associated with Long Hours as it Relates to Patient Safety - Article Example Thus, while fatigue derives from a number of causes, there is one aspect of fatigue that is highly dangerous to the performance of nurses. The fatigue derived from extended working shifts for nurses, coupled with deprivation of enough sleep results to a state of body where the nurses can neither function effectively physically nor apply the cognitive function of the mind efficiently. Studies have indicated that within the last century, the average sleep duration for working days has changed, from 9 hours in 1910, to 6 hours in 2002 (Rogers, 2008). Thus, while the actual sleeping duration for healthy adults has not yet been determined, the effects of extended period of work, coupled with lack of adequate sleep has been extensively documented. The well defined adverse effects of sleep deprivation that is coupled with extended long period of work include reduced motivation and mood alterations, physiological problems and cognitive problems, which then translates to poor job performance and high safety risks (Shen, Barbera & Shapiro, 2006). Other adverse effects of extended working shifts and deprivation of sleep are irritability, stress and depression, which in turn affect the interpersonal communication and interaction between the individuals involved and other parties. In this respect therefore, fatigue that arises either from extended shifts for the nurses, resulting to their overworking, or the fatigue that results from deprivation of adequate sleep, has the potential of affecting the nurses in two major ways. First, such fatigue is likely to result to irritation and mood changes, which means that the nurses will address and interact with patients in a less productive manner, or even in a more negative manner, resulting to the patients being dissatisfied with the nurses’ services (Rogers, 2008). Secondly, fatigue is likely to cause the